方法:means,method,technique,device,approach,way教师:teacher,professor,instructor,faculty工作:job,work,career,occupation,profession,position,employment旅行:journey,trip,voyage,tour,travel 会议:meeting,conference,congress,rally,convention 力量:power,force,strength,might路:street,road,way,path,avenue,lane 痛苦:pain,ache,suffering,distress,misery 结果:result,effect,consequence,outcome 协定:agreement,accord,pack,entente计谋:strategy,artifice,ruse,ploy,tactic,scheme,trick,intrigue,maneuver缺点:weakness,shortcoming,fault,defect,disadvantage,dismerit这些同义词受语体和感情色彩较少,可以在同样的语境下替换使用。王逢鑫(2001:34)举了几个例子,每个例子中给出一组同义词,说明它们在同一语境下,互相替代,意义并没有什么区别,从而说明英语同义词或同义表达的丰富。
[34]One of the examinationsme completely.(confused /bewildered /per鄄plexed /baffled /puzzled /confounded /mixed up)[35]The speakerhis knowledge of the subject by his informative lecture.(showed /demonstrated /displayed /indicated /exhibited /presented /denoted)[36]The effects made by information overload havethe professional world.(gone beyond the range of /extended beyond /exceeded the scope of /tran鄄scended)[37]Quality fashion tradethe performancethe practicality.(over鄄emphasizes /over鄄stressed /pays much attention to /pays much heed to /puts much emphasis on /lays much stress on /attaches great importance to,rather than /instead of /but neglects /but overlooks /but ignores /but disregards)英语同义词群的庞大,不仅仅是因为基本义相同的同义词多,还有不少引申义相同的词。如heavy 和sad,基本义完全不同,但heavy 词义引申后,就有sad 的意义,因此我们说,在heavy news 和sad news 搭配中,这两个词是一个意思。由于英语单词的引申能力强,因此不少转义比喻词丰富了同义词群。如在”减少冶同义词群中,除了de鄄crease、reduce、lessen、diminish、minimize 等这些基本义相同的词,还有比喻性词cut、trim、slash、shrink、axe、lop off 等,这些词引申后都表示“减少冶意义。再如criticise、rep鄄rehend、condemn、denounce、blame、reproach、rap、bash、slash、lambaste,后四个都是比喻性词汇。
同样story、scenario、syndrome、parameters 这些词和situation 似乎没有任何关系,但引申比喻后,都可以表达”情况冶。
[38]Having come to the conclusion,we began to plan for the worst possible scenario.
If you can handle the worst,then you can handle anything.(Norman Schwarzko鄄pf)得出结论后,我们便开始为应付最坏的情况制订计划。如果你对付得了最坏的局面,别的就什么也不怕了。
[39]It is difficult to find jobs during a boom time.This syndrome is having a terrible impact on the morale of the minority community.在经济繁荣时期也难找到工作。这种情况对少数民族社区的情绪,有一种极坏的影响。
[40]Almost single鄄handedly,she changed the parameters of British politics,ending the free鄄lunch mentality that had prevailed since 1945and replacing it with an unyielding commitment to free markets and individual responsibility.(Robert Knight)她几乎是单枪匹马地改变了英国的政治情况,结束了1945年以后风行一时的享受免费优惠的心态,而坚定地奉行自由市场和个人责任。
scenario 原指电影或歌剧的脚本,转义为“情况冶。syndrome 原义是医学上的综合征,转义为”情况冶。parameter 原义是数学上的参数,物理上的标轴,转义为:在特定情况下决定其他条件的一个常数(any constant in a given situation that determines other conditions of that situation)。此例中指撒切尔夫人改变了英国政治中的坐标,即扭转了方向,也可以说,改变了英国政治界的格局或情况。
正是这些大量的、受语体和感情色彩等影响较小的同义词群的存在,为英语追求词汇变化创造了条件。如例[2]的require /call for;take advantage of /make use of 和adapt to /make adjustment;例[22]的jammed /cramped /crowded;例[23]的method /tech鄄niques。这些同义词都可以互换。再如:
[41]The press and television keep showing us the faults of the public figures,until we lose faith and start looking for defects in any person who seems worthy of respect.In a neighbor or a statesman,we try to discover the weaknesses or ugly motives that are surely hiding behind his noble actions.(A Changing Scene)缺点:faultsdefectsweaknesses;发现:look fordiscover。
英语同义词群庞大还体现同义结构的参与。如:[42]They like salad./They are found of salad.
[43]His behavior seems to be unexplainable./His behavior seems to defy explanation.
[44]The situation won蒺t last./The situation won蒺t remain unchanged.
[45]A successful career costs some women a happy marriage./A successful career is achieved at the expense of a happy marriage.
[46]The plane crash caused 200people to die./The plane crash claimed 200lives.词性不同,或结构有些差异,但并不妨碍它们形成的同义关系。现在我们来分析汉语。汉语相对说来同义词群较小。如对《英语同义词词典》。
(高重等编著,同济大学出版社)和《常用汉语同义词双解手册》(郑秀枝等编著,今日中国出版社)两本词典中的每一组同义词中的数量统计,发现汉语一组同义词中最多的词条只有4个,且比例低,而英语6个以及6个以上还很多:
表3英汉同义词词群
每组词条数2个3个4个5个6个及以上
英语161(40%)127(31.8%)62(15.5%)31(7.8%)19(4.8%)汉语282(82.2%)58(16.9%)3(0.9%)0(0%)0(0%)汉语同义词还有三个特点限制了同义词替换变化。
1)汉语的同义词基本上都是用同一语素组成的双音词。如有的是第一语素相同义词群也大多是由同一语素构成的:
改进改善改良优良优秀优异包含包括包罗
步调步伐步骤颁布公布宣布流言谰言谣言
大众民众群众
粗鲁粗俗粗野粗蛮强烈猛烈激烈剧烈
思考思虑思索思忖大风暴风飓风狂风
抛弃摈弃屏弃弃绝熟悉熟识熟谙谙熟
侵害侵占侵夺侵犯侵吞侵入
巨大庞大硕大粗大高大广大
空想幻想梦想玄想遐想瞎想
在这里我们又看到语音限制了同义词的数量。而英语有非常庞大的辨义音节数,有复杂多样的音节组合形式和语音表现形式,同义词很少是用同一语素构成的,这就为同义词的发展提供了语音条件。根据我们对英语Penguin Dictionary of English Syno鄄nyms and Antonyms 和《新华同义词词典》的统计,用同一语素构成的同义词英语仅占7.5%(基本上是词缀,如un鄄、dis鄄),而汉语高达93.75%(基本上是词根语素)。英语中用同一语素构成同义词较少,除了语音因素外,还有几个原因。i)英语词汇中单纯词多,用单个语素构成的同义词不可能是用同一词形的。如“大冶:big、great、huge、large、vast、giant、jumbo、immense、enormous、colossal;“路冶:street、road、way、path、avenue。ii)英语中表达同一意义的词缀和词根很多。如”前冶:ex、pre、ante、pro、fore;“超冶:su鄄per、ultra、meta;”过分冶:hyper、out、over、super;“下冶:sub、de、under、hypo、infra;“转冶:vert、rot、trop、gyr;“拍冶:terr、tim、horr、phob;“言冶:dict、parl、log、loqu、fable、lingu、or;“行冶:gress、vad、vas、ambul、vag、ced、cess;”切、割冶:tom、sect、tail、cid、cis。这样形成同义词,使用同一语素的机会少了,前言:foreword、prologue、preamble,前辈:predecessor、forefather,前驱者:antecedent、forerunner,可怕的:terrific、horrible,入侵者:aggression、invasion,前进:proceed、progress,语言学:philology、linguistics。iii)表达同一意义的语素来源丰富,既可以是本族语的,外来语的(其中又可以是拉丁语的,希腊语的和法语的)。如寿命:life /span /longevity,水手:seaman /sailor /mariner,年刊:year book /annual,怀乡病:homesick /nostalgic,多雨:rainy /pluvious,水道:watercourse /aqueduct。