Dramaticchangesineconomicandfamilysystemsinevitablygohandinhand.JustastheemergenceofmodernindustrializingsocietiespreoccupiedthefoundingfiguresofsociologyintheWest，sotoothedevelopmentofthemodernnuclearfamilydominatedtheagendaofthediscipline’sfirstcenturyoftheoryandresearchonfamilytransformation.SociologistslikeTalcottParsons（1944）andWilliamGoode（1967）claimedthatthestreamlinedfamilycomposedofamalebreadwinner，afemalehomemaker，andtheirchildrensuitedtheneedsofrapidlyindustrializingsocietiesaswellasthepresumeddifferent，heterosexual，andcomplementarynaturesofmenandwomenthemselves.Themodernnuclearfamilystructuredaroundaromanticconceptofheterosexualloveandoffreechoice，companionatemarriagerepresentedwhatsociologistAnthonyGiddens（1992）termsthe“Atransformationofintimacy.”Itsignaledthehistorictrajectoryfromaregimeofobligatoryfamily，kinship，andsexualitytakentobe“Anatural”totheunleashingofincreasinglevelsofindividualemotion，choice，anddiversitythatcharacterizeourpersonallivestoday.Orperhapsitismoreaccuratetosuggestthatmodernfreechoicemarriagelaunchedthemodernconceptofintimacyitself，withitsemphasisontheindividualquestforeroticizedloveandemotionalauthenticity.
Contradictionsinherenttothemodernfamilysystem，suchasbetweentheidealoffreeloveandtherealityofgenderinequalityandlawsagainstsodomy，orbetweenpersonaldesiresandmarketforces，consignedtotheclosetthepursuitofanyformofintimacythatchallengedmale-dominantpatternsofheterosexualmarriageandparenthood.Overthecourseofthetwentiethcentury，continuingprocessesofeconomicdevelopmentinadvancedindustrialsocieties，sometimesdescribedaspost-industrialization，exacerbatedthesecontradictionsandultimatelyuprootedthefoundationsandstabilityofthemodernfamilyitself.Post-industrialeconomicforcesalteredthebasicdemographicfeaturesofmodernmarriageandfamilynorms.Themostprominent，andoftencontroversial，changesunleashedincludedincreasingpercentagesofwomenandmothersinpaidemployment，risingageofmarriage，lowerfertilityrates，escalateddivorceandremarriagerates，alongwithrisingratesofsinglemotherhoodandstep-families，andthedevelopmentofnewformsofcontraceptionandreproductivetechnologies.
Inplaceofthenormativemodernnuclearfamilypattern，familyandsexualdiversityisnowthenormintheU.S.andmostotheradvancedindustrial（orpost-industrial）societies.Ihavecalledthisthepostmodernfamilycondition（Stacey1990）.Nosinglefamilystructureenjoysstatisticaldominanceorculturalsecurity.Themeaningandpracticesofgender，family，andsexualitycannolongerbetakenforgrantedorbepresumedtobenatural.Insteadofobligatoryparticipationinheterosexuality，procreation，orAthefamily，“weareobligedtoAchoose”if，how，andwithwhomwewillcouple，parent，andformintimatebonds.Asthemeaningandpurposeofsexualityexpandedsubstantiallybeyondtheboundsofprocreativefamilylife，minoritysexualdesiresandpracticesbecameincreasinglyvisible，self-aware，andsociallyorganized.Mostsignificantly，growingnumbersofpeoplewithhomoeroticdesiresemergedfromthecloset，begantoidentifythemselvesasgayorlesbian，andtoseekdignity，respect，andfullmembershipandrightsintheirsocieties.
FromFamilyExilestoFamilyPioneers
FewfeaturesoftherecenthistoryoffamilyandsexualityintheWestaremorestrikingorsurprisingthantherapidascendanceofanincreasinglyglobalcampaignforsame-sexmarriageandparentrights.Justashorttimeagomostgaysandlesbiansfeltcompelledtofleetheirfamiliesandtoconstructtheirlives，relationships，andcommunitiesinoppositiontolegalfamilyforms.Manypresumedthattheymustforfeitaccesstothesedomainsiftheyidentifiedthemselvesaslesbianorgay.Othersadoptedacriticalstancetowardtheinstitutionsofmarriageandparenthoodandtotheveryconceptoffamily.However，withinaverybriefhistoricalperiod，vastnumbersoflesbiansandgaymenshiftedtheirprioritiesfromescapingrepressiontheyhadexperiencedintheirnatalfamiliestoembracingthegoalofforming“Afamilieswechoose”（Weston1991）.
Internationalprogressforlegalrecognitionofsame-sexcouplerelationshipshastranspiredwithstartlingspeed.In2001（thesameyearthattheChinesePsychiatricAssociationremovedhomosexualityfromitsofficialrosterofmentalillnesses），theNetherlandsbecamethefirstnationtograntsame-sexcouplesequalaccesstolegalmaritalstatus.Inrapidsuccessionsincethen，fourmorenations，Belgium，Canada，Spain，andSouthAfrica，bynomeansthemostpredictable，followedtheDutchlead.ItseemsparticularlyworthnotingthatthisvanguardgroupincludesapredominantlyCatholiccountry（Spain）andanimpoverished，raciallydiversenationfromtheGlobalSouth（SouthAfrica）；bothsocietiesachievedpeacefultransformationsafteralongperiodofrulebyreactionaryregimes.Severalothernationswilllikelysoonjointhisroster，buttheUnitedStatesisnotamongthem.Same-sexmarriagehasbecomeahighlypoliticized，deeplypolarizingissueintheU.S.whererightwingevangelicalChristianorganizationspossessconsiderablepoliticalpower.BecausetheU.S.federalconstitutionreservesprimaryauthorityovermarriageandfamilylawtothestates，statesarefreetoenactwildlydiscrepantpolicies.Atthispoint，onlyonestate（Massachusetts）allowssame-sexcouplestomarry，whilethirty-ninehaveenactedstatewidebansagainstsame-sexmarriage.