The second of the measures,the Sedition Act,penalized not only those who attempted to stir up unlawful combinations against the government but also every one who wrote,uttered,or published "any false,scandalous,and malicious writing ...against the government of the United States or either House of Congress,or the President of the United States,with intent to defame said government ...or to bring them or either of them into contempt or disrepute."This measure was hurried through Congress in spite of the opposition and the clear provision in the Constitution that Congress shall make no law abridging the ******* of speech or of the press.Even many Federalists feared the consequences of the action.Hamilton was alarmed when he read the bill,exclaiming:"Let us not establish a tyranny.Energy is a very different thing from violence."John Marshall told his friends in Virginia that,had he been in Congress,he would have opposed the two bills because he thought them "useless"and "calculated to create unnecessary discontents and jealousies."
The Alien law was not enforced;but it gave great offense to the Irish and French whose activities against the American government's policy respecting Great Britain put them in danger of prison.The Sedition law,on the other hand,was vigorously applied.Several editors of Republican newspapers soon found themselves in jail or broken by ruinous fines for their caustic criticisms of the Federalist President and his policies.Bystanders at political meetings,who uttered sentiments which,though ungenerous and severe,seem harmless enough now,were hurried before Federalist judges and promptly fined and imprisoned.Although the prosecutions were not numerous,they arouseda keen resentment.The Republicans were convinced that their political opponents,having saddled upon the country Hamilton's fiscal system and the British treaty,were bent on silencing all censure.The measures therefore had exactly the opposite effect from that which their authors intended.Instead of helping the Federalist party,they made criticism of it more bitter than ever.
The Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions.-Jefferson was quick to take ad-vantage of the discontent.He drafted a set of resolutions declaring the Sedition law null and void,as violating the federal Constitution.His resolutions were passed by the Kentucky legislature late in 1798,signed by the governor,and transmitted to the other states for their consideration.Though receiving unfa-vorable replies from a number of Northern states,Kentucky the following year reaffirmed its position and declared that the nullification of all unconstitutional acts of Congress was the rightful remedy to be used by the states in the redress of grievances.It thus defied the federal government and announced a doctrine hostile to nationality and fraught with terrible meaning for the future.In the neighboring state of Virginia,Madison led a movement against the Alien and Sedition laws.He induced the legislature to pass resolutions condemning the acts as unconstitutional and calling upon the other states to take proper means to preserve their rights and the rights of the people.
The Republican Triumph in 1800.-Thus the way was prepared for the elec-tion of 1800.The Republicans left no stone unturned in their efforts to place on the Federalist candidate,President Adams,all the odium of the Alien and Sedition laws,in addition to responsibility for approving Hamilton's measures and policies.The Federalists,divided in councils and cold in their affection for Adams,made a poor campaign.They tried to discredit their opponents with epithets of "Jacobins"and "Anarchists"-terms which had been weakened by ex-cessive use.When the vote was counted,it was found that Adams had been defeated;while the Republicans had carried the en-tire South and New York also and secured eight of the fifteen electoral votes cast by Pennsylvania."Our beloved Adams will now close his bright career,"lamented a Federalist newspaper."Sons of faction,demagogues and high priests of anarchy,now you have cause to triumph!"
Jefferson's election,however,was
still uncertain.By a curious provision in Portrait of Thomas Jefferson by Gilbert Stuartthe Constitution,presidential electors were required to vote for two persons without indicating which office each was to fill,the one receiving the highest number of votes to be President and the candidate standing next to be Vice President.It so happened that Aaron Burr,the Republican candidate for Vice President,had received the same number of votes as Jefferson;as neither had a majority the election was thrown into the House of Representatives,where the Federalists held the balance of power.Although it was well known that Burr was not even a candidate for President,his friends and many Federalists began intriguing for his election to that high office.Had it not been for the vigorous action of Hamilton the prize might have been snatched out of Jefferson's hands.Not until the thirty-sixth ballot on February 17,1801,was the great issue decided in his favor.
QUESTIONS
1.Who were the leaders in the first administration under the Constitution?
2.What step was taken to appease the opposition?
3.Enumerate Hamilton's great measures and explain each in detail.
4.Show the connection between the parts of Hamilton's system.
5.Contrast the general political views of Hamilton and Jefferson.
6.What were the important results of the "peaceful"French Revolution （1789-92）?
7.Explain the interaction of opinion between France and the United States.
8.How did the "Reign of Terror"change American opinion?
9.What was the Burke-Paine controversy?
10.Show how the war in Europe affected American commerce and involved America with England and France.
11.What were American policies with regard to each of those countries?