OF SYSTEMS OF POLITICAL ECONOMY
INTRODUCTION
POLITICAL economy, considered as a branch of the science of a statesman or legislator, proposes two distinct objects: first, to provide a plentiful revenue or subsistence for the people, or more properly to enable them to provide such a revenue or subsistence for themselves; and secondly, to supply the state or commonwealth with a revenue sufficient for the public services.
It proposes to enrich both the people and the sovereign.
The different progress of opulence in different ages and nations has given occasion to two different systems of political economy with regard to enriching the people.The one may be called the system of commerce, the other that of agriculture.Ishall endeavour to explain both as fully and distinctly as I can, and shall begin with the system of commerce.It is the modern system, and is best understood in our own country and in our own times.
CHAPTER I
Of the Principle of the Commercial, or Mercantile System THAT wealth consists in money, or and silver, is a popular notion which naturally arises from the double function of money, as the instrument of commerce and as the measure of value.In consequence of its being the instrument of commerce, when we have money we can more readily obtain whatever else we have occasion for than by means of any other commodity.The great affair, we always find, is to get money.When that is obtained, there is no difficulty in ****** any subsequent purchase.In consequence of its being the measure of value, we estimate that of all other commodities by the quantity of money which they will exchange for.We say of a rich man that he is worth a great deal, and of a poor man that he is worth very little money.A frugal man, or a man eager to be rich, is said to love money; and a careless, a generous, or a profuse man, is said to be indifferent about it.
To grow rich is to get money; and wealth and money, in short, are, in common language, considered as in every respect synonymous.
A rich country, in the same manner as a rich man, is supposed to be a country abounding in money; and to heap up gold and saver in any country is supposed to be the readiest way to enrich it.For some time after the discovery of America, the first inquiry of the Spaniards, when they arrived upon an unknown coast, used to be, if there was any gold or silver to be found in the neighbourhood.By the information which they received, they judged whether it was worth while to make a settlement there, or if the country was worth the conquering.Plano Carpino, a monk, sent ambassador from the King of France to one of the sons of the famous Genghis Khan, says that the Tartars used frequently to ask him if there was plenty of sheep and oxen in the kingdom of France.Their inquiry had the same object with that of the Spaniards.They wanted to know if the country was rich enough to be worth the conquering.Among the Tartars, as among all other nations of shepherds, who are generally ignorant of the use of money, cattle are the instruments of commerce and the measures of value.Wealth, therefore, according to them, consisted in cattle, as according to the Spaniards it consisted in gold and silver.Of the two, the Tartar notion, perhaps, was the nearest to the truth.
Mr.Locke remarks a distinction between money and other movable goods.All other movable goods, he says, are of so consumable a nature that the wealth which consists in them cannot be much depended on, and a nation which abounds in them one year may, without any exportation, but merely their own waste and extravagance, be in great want of them the next.Money, on the contrary, is a steady friend, which, though it may travel about from hand to hand, yet if it can be kept from going out of the country, is not very liable to be wasted and consumed.Gold and silver, therefore, are, according to him, the most solid and substantial part of the movable wealth of a nation, and to multiply those metals ought, he thinks, upon that account, to be the great object of its political economy.
Others admit that if a nation could be separated from all the world, it would be of no consequence how much, or how little money circulated in it.The consumable goods which were circulated by means of this money would only be exchanged for a greater or a smaller number of pieces; but the real wealth or poverty of the country, they allow, would depend altogether upon the abundance or scarcity of those consumable goods.But it is otherwise, they think, with countries which have connections with foreign nations, and which are obliged to carry on foreign wars, and to maintain fleets and armies in distant countries.This, they say, cannot be done but by sending abroad money to pay them with; and a nation cannot send much money abroad unless it has a good deal at home.Every such nation, therefore, must endeavour in time of peace to accumulate gold and silver that, when occasion requires, it may have wherewithal to carry on foreign wars.
In consequence of these popular notions, all the different nations of Europe have studied, though to little purpose, every possible means of accumulating gold and silver in their respective countries.Spain and Portugal, the proprietors of the principal mines which supply Europe with those metals, have either prohibited their exportation under the severest penalties, or subjected it to a considerable duty.The like prohibition seems anciently to have made a part of the policy of most other European nations.It is even to be found, where we should least of all expect to find it, in some old Scotch acts of Parliament, which forbid under heavy penalties the carrying gold or silver forth of the kingdom.The like policy anciently took place both in France and England.
When those countries became commercial, the merchants found this prohibition, upon many occasions, extremely inconvenient.