Starting from nothing， the King is the maker of a compact State， containing the population of twenty-six millions， and then the most powerful in -Europe. - Throughout this interval he is at the head of the national defense. He is the liberator of the country against foreigners， against the Pope in the fourteenth century， against the English in the fifteenth， against the Spaniards in the sixteenth. In the interior， from the twelfth century onward， with the helmet on his brow， and always on the road， he is the great justiciary， demolishing the towers of the feudal brigands， repressing the excesses of the powerful， and protecting the oppressed.[14] He puts an end to private warfare； he establishes order and tranquility. This was an immense accomplishment， which， from Louis le Gros to St. Louis， from Philippe le Bel to Charles VII， continues uninterruptedly up to the middle of the eighteenth century in the edict against duels and in the "Grand Jours."[15] Meanwhile all useful projects carried out under his orders， or developed under his patronage， roads， harbors， canals， asylums， universities， academies， institutions of piety， of refuge， of education， of science， of industry， and of commerce， bears his imprint and proclaim the public benefactor.-Services of this character challenge a proportionate recompense； it is allowed that from father to son he is wedded to France； that she acts only through him； that he acts only for her； while every souvenir of the past and every present interest combine to sanction this union. The Church consecrates it at Rheims by a sort of eighth sacrament， accompanied with legends and miracles； he is the anointed of God.[16] The nobles， through an old instinct of military fealty， consider themselves his bodyguard， and down to August 10， 1789， rush forward to die for him on his staircase；he is their general by birth. The people， down to 1789， regard him as the redresser of abuses， the guardian of the right， the protector of the weak， the great almoner and the universal refuge. At the beginning of the reign of Louis XVI "shouts of Vive le roi， which began at six o'clock in the morning， continued scarcely interrupted until after sunset."[17] When the Dauphin was born the joy of France was that of a whole family. "People stopped each other in the streets， spoke together without any acquaintance， and everybody embraced everybody he knew."[18] Every one， through vague tradition， through immemorial respect， feels that France is a ship constructed by his hands and the hands of his ancestors. In this sense， the vessel is his property； it is his right to it is the same as that of each passenger to his private goods. The king's only duty consists in being expert and vigilant in guiding across the oceans and beneath his banner the magnificent ship upon which everyone's welfare depends.-Under the ascendancy of such an idea he was allowed to do everything. By fair means or foul， he so reduced ancient authorities as to make them a fragment， a pretense， a souvenir. The nobles are simply his officials or his courtiers. Since the Concordat he nominates the dignitaries of the Church. The States-General were not convoked for a hundred and seventy-five years； the provincial assemblies， which continue to subsist， do nothing but apportion the taxes； the parliaments are exiled when they risk a remonstrance. Through his council， his intendants， his sub-delegates， he intervenes in the most trifling of local matters. His revenue is four hundred and seventy-seven millions.[19] He disburses one-half of that of the Clergy. In short， he is absolute master， and he so declares himself.[20] -Possessions， ******* from taxation， the satisfactions of vanity， a few remnants of local jurisdiction and authority， are consequently all that is left to his ancient rivals； in exchange for these they enjoy his favors and marks of preference.-Such， in brief， is the history of the privileged classes， the Clergy， the Nobles， and the King. It must be kept in mind to comprehend their situation at the moment of their fall； having created France， they enjoy it. Let us see clearly what becomes of them at the end of the eighteenth century； what portion of their advantages they preserved； what services they still render， and what services they do not render.
Notes ：
[1]. "Les Moines d'Occident，" by Montalembert， I. 277. St. Lupicin before the Burgundian King Chilperic， II. 416. Saint Karileff before King Childebert. Cf. passim， Gregory of Tours and the Bollandist collection.
[2]. No legend is more frequently encountered； we find it as late as the twelfth century.
[3]. Chilperic， for example， acting under the advice of Fredegonde after the death of all their children.
[4]. Montalembert， ibid.， II. book 8； and especially "Les Forêts de la France dans l'antiquité et au Moyen Age，" by Alfred Maury. Spinoe et vepres is a phrase constantly recurring in the lives of the saints.
[5]. We find the same thing to day with the colonies of Trappists in Algiers.
[6]. "Polyptique d'Irminon，" by Guérard. In this work we see the prosperity of the domain belonging to the Abbey of St. Germain des Près at the end of the eighth century. According to M. Guérard's statistics， the peasantry of Paliseau were about as prosperous in the time of Charlemagne as at the present day.
[7]. Taine's definition would also fit contemporary (1999) drugs and video entertainment which also provide mankind with both hope， pleasure and entertainment. (SR.)[8]. There are twenty-five thousand lives of the saints， between the sixth and the tenth centuries， collected by the Bollandists. - The last that are truly inspired are those of St. Francis of Assisi and his companions at the beginning of the fourteenth century. The same vivid sentiment extends down to the end of the fifteenth century in the works of Fra Angelico and Hans Memling. - The Sainte Chapelle in Paris， the upper church at Assisi， Dante's Paradise， and the Fioretti， furnish an idea of these visions. As regards modern literature， the state of a believer's soul in the middle ages is perfectly described in the "Pélerinage à Kevlaar，" by Henri Heine， and in "Les Reliques vivantes，" by Tourgueneff.
[9]. As， for example， Tertulle， founder of the Platagenet family， Rollo， Duke of Normandy， Hugues， Abbot of St. Martin of Tours and of St. Denis.
[10]. See the "Cantilenes" of the tenth century in which the "Chansons de Geste" are foreshadowed.
[11]. Laws governing the feudal system (1372) where the feudal lord is unable to transmit his property by testament but has to leave them to the next holder of the title. The "mainmortables" were serfs who belonged to the property. (SR.)[12]. See in the "Voyages du Caillaud，" in Nubia and Abyssinia， the raids for slaves made by the Pacha's armies； Europe presented about the same spectacle between the years 800 and 900.
[13]. See the zeal of subjects for their lords in the historians of the middle ages； Gaston Phoebus， Comte de Foix， and Guy， Comte de Flandres in Froissart； Raymond de Béziers and Raymond de Toulouse， in the chronicle of Toulouse. This profound sentiment of small local patrimonics is apparent at each provincial assembly in Normandy， Brittany， Franche-Comté， etc.
[14]. Suger， Life of Louis VI.
[15]. "Les Grand Jours d'Auvergne，" by Fléchier， ed. Chéruel. The last feudal brigand， the Baron of Plumartin， in Poitou， was taken， tried， and beheaded under Louis XV in 1756.
[16]. As late as Louis XV a procès verbal is made of a number of cures of the King's evil.
[17]. "Mémoires of Madame Campan，" I. 89； II. 215.
[18]. In 1785 an Englishman visiting France boasts of the political liberty enjoyed in his country. As an offset to this the French reproach the English for having decapitated Charles I.， and "glory in having always maintained an inviolable attachment to their own king； a fidelity， a respect which no excess or severity on his part has ever shaken." ("A Comparative View of the French and of the English Nation，" by John Andrews， p.257.)[19]. Memoirs of D'Augeard， private secretary of the Queen， and a former farmer-general.
[20]. The following is the reply of Louis XV. to the Parliament of Paris， March 3， 1766， in a lit de justice ： "The sovereign authority is vested in my person. . . The legislative power， without dependence and without division， exists in myself alone. Public security emanates wholly from myself； I am its supreme custodian. My people are one only with me； national rights and interests， of which an attempt is made to form a body separate from those of the monarch， are necessarily combined with my own， and rests only in my hands."